Journal of Applied Biosciences 211: 22388 – 22400
ISSN 1997-5902
Evaluation of compliance with microbiological criteria of herbal preparations produced by traditional medicine practitioners in Côte d’Ivoire
Amadou DIABAGATE1,2,3, Sabine N’dri VAKOU2, Ehoulé KROA3, Kouamé Barthélemy YAO1,3, Kalpy Julien COULIBALY2, Bakary COULIBALY1.
1 Agrovalorization Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry-Microbiology, Jean Lorougnon Guédé-Daloa University2 Environmental Chemistry and Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Environment and Health, Pasteur Institute of Côte d’Ivoire3 National Program for the Promotion of Traditional Medicine (PNPMT), Ministry of Health, Public Hygiene and Universal Health Coverage (MSHPCMU)
Corresponding Author: benipoho7@gmail.com
Submitted 16/07/2025, Published online on 31/08/2025 in the https://www.m.elewa.org/journals/journal-of-applied-biosciences https://doi.org/10.35759/JABs.211.7
ABSTRACT
Objective: This study was conducted to assess compliance with microbiological criteria of herbal medicines produced in Ivory Coast in order to ensure their safety and therapeutic efficacy.
Methodology and Results: 1,585 samples of herbal medicines in liquid, powder and capsule forms were collected from 200 traditional medicine practitioners in 14 cities of Ivory Coast.
Liquid forms represented 46.69% of the samples, powders 44.48%, and capsules 8.83%. These samples were subjected to microbiological analyses in accordance with AFNOR standards and focused on the search for several types of microbes such as: Total Aerobic Mesophilic Flora (TAMF), Total Coliforms (TC), Thermotolerant Coliforms (TTC), Yeasts and Molds (LM), Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella, Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium perfringens. The analysis results indicate varying levels of microbiological contamination among the samples. Total aerobic mesophilic flora was detected in high proportions in the samples, while microbes such as E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella, and Shigella were found in low proportions. Also, pathogenic microbes such as S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, and C. perfringens were absent in all the samples analysed.
Conclusion and Application of results: Some samples showed contamination levels exceeding the acceptable thresholds of microbiological quality criteria. However, the majority of herbal medicines analysed complied with the microbiological safety criteria defined by the WHO.
Keywords: herbal preparations, traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs), microbiological analyses, microbes, contamination levels.
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that in Côte d’Ivoire, as in many sub-Saharan African countries, more than 80% of the population uses medicinal plants. These constitute an essential resource in traditional medicine (WHO, 2002). In Côte d’Ivoire, traditional remedies occupy a central place in healthcare practices. The population uses them widely to treat a variety of pathologies (WHO, 2002; WHO, 2010; MSHP, 2018; Ngbolua et al., 2019). This preponderance is explained by the high cost of modern medicines, particularly antibiotics, making their accessibility difficult for a majority of the population (Ouattara et al., 2008). Consequently, thousands of plant species are used to meet health needs (Mangambu et al., 2012). These practices, deeply rooted in traditional know-how, rely on preparation techniques such as decoction, infusion and maceration, allowing the active ingredients of the plants to be extracted (Kamanzi, 2002; Serge-Roland, 2020). In this context, traditional medicine is of paramount importance, leading the African Union to promote its valorization, notably during the first conference on medicinal plants and African pharmacopoeia held in Dakar, Senegal (Karthala, 1996). Moreover, recent research shows that complex interactions between microorganisms and phytochemical compounds can modulate the pharmacological effects of traditional remedies, reinforcing or attenuating their therapeutic actions (Julie, 2006; MSLS, 2014; Serge-Roland, 2020). This shift underscores the growing importance of traditional medicine in public health programs, requiring careful evaluation not only of the efficacy, but also of the safety and innocuousness of these remedies (Becila, 2009). However, despite their proven efficacy, the microbiological quality of herbal medicines remains a major public health issue (WHO, 2007; OOAS, 2013). The presence of microorganisms such as S. aureus, E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella, Shigella, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus is not systematically beneficial (WHO, 2007; BNQ, 2019). These pathogens associated with plants or introduced during preparation processes represent potential health risks (GC, 2018; BNQ, 2019). The assessment of the microbiological quality of these herbal products is imperative to ensure their safety and therapeutic efficacy (WHO, 2007). It is becoming increasingly important in a context where the regulation of herbal medicines remains limited in sub-Saharan Africa (WHO, 2000; Chabrier, 2010; Lehmann, 2013; Limonier, 2018). The approach involves detecting pathogenic microbes and quantifying the overall microbial loads of these medicinal preparations (WHO, 2007; OOAS, 2013). It is with this in mind that this study aims to assess the microbiological quality of herbal medicines produced in Côte d’Ivoire with a view to determining their compliance with current microbiological safety criteria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Biological material: This material consists of herbal medicines (powders, liquids, and capsules) produced by traditional medicine practitioners, whether or not they are listed in the National Program for the Promotion of Traditional Medicine (PNPMT).MethodsSampling Methods: Fourteen (14) cities were selected for sample collection in Côte d’Ivoire. These sites were chosen based on population density, traditional medicine practices, and their representative geographic location. Samples were collected randomly. Samples were transported to the laboratory within 24 hours of collection and processed upon receipt.Microbiological Analyses: The detection and enumeration of microbes were carried out according to methods based on standardized procedures (AFNOR, 1996). The enumeration included total mesophilic aerobic flora (NF V08-51), total coliforms (NF V08-50), thermotolerant coliforms (NF V08-500), yeasts and molds (Standards XP V08-059, October 1996), the detection of S. aureus (NF V08-57), the detection of Salmonella and Shigella (NF V08-052, 1997), and the detection of E. coli (ISO 7218:2007 Standards), the search for P. aeruginosa (NF ISO 22717), the search for L. monocytogenes (ISO 16140) and the search for C. perfringens (NF EN ISO 7937). The culture media were prepared according to the manufacturers’ recommendations.
Sample Preparation: A stock solution (MS) and successive dilutions are prepared up to a 10-4 dilution according to the standardized method (AFNOR; 1996).
Culture media inoculation for germ detection and enumeration
Surface inoculation (PCA, VRBG, VRBL, Baird Parker, TBX, Cetremide, and BCC media): 0.1 mL of each dilution (10-1, 10-2, 10-3, and 10-4) was taken and then aseptically placed on the surface of the agar contained in the Petri dish. Then, using a sterile rake, the mixture was spread evenly over the surface of the Petri dish. The plates were incubated at 30°C or 37°C and observed after 24 hours.Deep inoculation (PCA, VRBG, and Sabouraud media + Chloramphenicol): 1 mL of each dilution (10-1, 10-2, 10-3, and 10-4) was aseptically transferred into the corresponding sterile Petri dishes. The medium was cooled in a 45°C water bath and added to the sample at a rate of 15 mL per dish. The Petri dish was then rotated to ensure even distribution of the sample within the dish. The dish was then closed and left to rest on a perfectly horizontal surface until the first layer had completely solidified. After solidification, a second 7 mL layer of medium was added for further solidification. After this second solidification, the dishes were inverted and incubated at 30°C or 37°C, then observed after 24 or 72 hoursSS medium inoculation for Salmonella and Shigella isolation: 0.1 mL of each dilution (10-1, 10-2, 10-3, and 10-4) was aseptically transferred into tubes containing 10 mL of Rappaport Vassiliadis (RV) medium. The tubes were incubated at 37°C and observed after 24 hours. Then, using a sterile platinum loop, a quantity of the broth was removed and streaked onto the SS medium. The plates were incubated at 37°C and observed after 24 hours.Clostridium perfringens Test: 1 g or 1 mL of the sample was taken and added to 9 mL of TSE (Tryptone Salt Water). This solution was then placed in a water bath at 80°C for 10 minutes and then cooled under running tap water until the temperature reached 45°C. After cooling, 1 mL of the stock solution was added to empty sterile Petri dishes, then 15 mL of Tryptone Sulfite Cycloserine Agar was added to each dish. The solution was mixed thoroughly and allowed to solidify. The dishes were then incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.Listeria monocytogenes detection (RAPID’L. Mono Agar): 1 g or 1 mL of the sample was taken and added to 9 mL of Fraser ½ broth, followed by a 10-1 dilution. The dilution was then incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. After incubation, 0.1 mL of Fraser ½ broth was taken with a sterile pipette and placed as a drop on the outer edge of half of the RAPID’L. Mono agar. Using a sterile swab, a surface spread was made over half of the plate. Continuing, with a sterile Pasteur pipette, starting from the end of the spread, the inoculation was made in the form of transverse streaks across the entire plate. Finally, the plates were incubated upside down at 37°C for 24 hours. After 24 hours of incubation, an interpretation of the appearance of the colonies was carried out.Colony Counting: According to the AFNOR standard (1996), plates with more than 30 and fewer than 300 colonies were selected. The number of microorganisms present in a given product sample was obtained using the following formula, according to the AFNOR standard (2001).
(Microbes/ mL or g)
N: Number of microbes∑C: Sum of coloniesV: Inoculation volumen1: Number of Petri dishes counted at the first dilutionn2: Number of Petri dishes counted at the second dilutiond: Dilution rate at the first dilution selectedMicrobiological Standards: The number of microorganisms per mL or g was calculated for each germ studied based on the samples analysed and then compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) standard microbiological criteria for herbal medicinal products. NLM classification: QV 766, 2007.Statistical Analysis: Data were entered and analysed using EXCEL software.
RESULTS
Distribution of herbal medicines by phytogalenic form: 1585 samples were collected during this study. Analysis of the phytogalenic form of these samples revealed that the liquid form was predominant, representing 46.69% of the total sample size, corresponding to 740 samples. The proportion of samples collected in powder form was 44.48%, equivalent to 705 samples. However, capsules, although included in the phytogalenic forms collected, recorded a low rate. Only 140 samples were collected, corresponding to 8.83% of the total samples (Table 1).
Table 1: Distribution rate of herbal medicines according to the phytogalenic forms collected
| Phytogalenic
Forms |
Number ofsamples collected | Percentage (%) |
| Liquid | 740 | 46,68769716 |
| Powder | 705 | 44,47949527 |
| Capsule | 140 | 8,832807571 |
| Total | 1585 | 100 |
Microbiological Analyses: Eleven (11) microbial organisms were tested in each sample, including Total Aerobic Mesophilic Flora (TAMF), Total Coliforms (TC), Thermotolerant Coliforms (TTC), Yeasts and Molds (YM), E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Salmonella, Shigella, S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, and C. perfringens. Total Aerobic Mesophilic Flora (TAMF) was identified in a significant proportion of samples: 88.51% of liquid preparations, 94.33% of powder preparations, and 89.29% of capsule-form medications. The microbial loads, varying between 2.8.103 UFC/mL or g and 1.9.10⁶ UFC/mL or g, were in accordance with the WHO standards (107 UFC/mL or g). This flora was absent in 11.49% of the liquid samples, in 5.67% of the powder samples and in 10.71% of the capsules (Table 2).
Table 2: Level of contamination of herbal medicines by Total Aerobic Mesophilic Flora (TAMF)
| Products | Acceptance criterion (UFC/mL or UFC/g) | Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number
of samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | 107 | Absence | 85 | 11,49 |
| F ≤ 107 | 655 | 88,51 | ||
| F >107 | 0 | 0 | ||
| Powder | 107 | Absence | 40 | 5,67 |
| F ≤ 107 | 665 | 94,33 | ||
| F >107 | 0 | 0% | ||
| Capsule | 107 | Absence | 15 | 10,71 |
| F ≤ 107 | 125 | 89,29 | ||
| F >107 | 0 | 0 |
Total coliforms were detected in 37.16% of liquid products, in 39.72% of powdered medicines and 50% of capsule products did not contain coliforms. However, contamination remained within acceptable limits for 60.81% of liquid products, 49.65% of powdered products and 50% of capsule products, with microbial loads between 4.10² UFC/mL and 8.10² UFC/mL for liquids, 3.8.10² UFC/g and 5,9.10² UFC/g for powders, and 6.9.10² UFC/g and 7,9.10² UFC/g for capsules, respectively, thus meeting the microbiological criteria established by the WHO (104 UFC/mL or g). It should be noted that in 2.03% of liquid products and 10,63% of powder products, the microbial loads ranged respectively between 1,8.10⁵ UFC/mL and 3.10⁶ UFC/mL for liquids, and between 1,4.10⁵ UFC/g and 2,6.10⁵ UFC/g for powders, thus exceeding the acceptability threshold (10⁴ UFC/g), indicating a more marked contamination of these samples (Table 3).
Table 3: Level of contamination of herbal medicines by total coliforms
| Products | Acceptance criterion (UFC/mL or UFC/g) | Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number of samples | Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | 104 | Absence | 275 | 37,16 |
| F ≤ 104 | 450 | 60,81 | ||
| F >104 | 15 | 2,03 | ||
| Powder | 104 | Absence | 280 | 39,72 |
| F ≤ 104 | 350 | 49,65 | ||
| F >104 | 75 | 10,63 | ||
| Capsule | 104 | Absence | 70 | 50 |
| F ≤ 104 | 70 | 50 | ||
| F >104 | 0 | 0 |
Regarding Thermotolerant Coliforms (TC), these microbes were absent in the majority of samples. This absence represented a rate of 54.05% in liquid medicines, 68.80% in powder medicines and 64.30% in capsule medicines respectively. Their presence was however detected at a lower proportion in the samples: 45.27% of liquids, 31.20% of powders and 35.70% of capsules. In these samples, the microbial load between 1.9.10² UFC/mL or UFC/g and 3.10² UFC/mL or UFC/g, remained at levels considered acceptable (less than 10⁴ UFC/mL or UFC/g) by the WHO. However, loads above the WHO acceptance threshold of 10⁴ UFC/mL or UFC/g were observed in 0.68% of liquid drugs, with values ranging from 2.9.10⁴ UFC/mL to 3.10⁵ UFC/mL (Table 4).
Table 4 : Level of contamination of herbal medicines by Thermotolerant Coliforms (TC)
| Products | Acceptance
criterion (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number
of samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | 104 | Absence | 400 | 54,05 |
| F ≤ 104 | 335 | 45,27 | ||
| F >104 | 5 | 0,68 | ||
| Powder | 104 | Absence | 485 | 68,80 |
| F ≤ 104 | 220 | 31,20 | ||
| F >104 | 0 | 0% | ||
| Capsule | 104 | Absence | 90 | 64,30 |
| F ≤ 104 | 50 | 35,70 | ||
| F >104 | 0 | 0 |
Yeasts and molds were identified in 29.05% of liquid medicines, 25.53% of powder medicines and 7.14% of capsule medicines with values between 3.7.10² UFC/mL and 6.10² UFC/mL or g, remaining below the acceptability threshold of 10⁴ UFC/mL or UFC/g set by the WHO. In addition, they were completely absent in a significant proportion of samples: 70.95% of liquid medicines, 74.47% of powder medicines and 92.86% of capsule medicines (Table 5).
Table 5: Level of contamination of herbal medicines by yeasts and molds
| Products | Acceptance
criterion (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number
of samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | 104 | Absence | 525 | 70,95 |
| F ≤ 104 | 215 | 29,05 | ||
| F >104 | 0 | 0% | ||
| Powder | 104 | Absence | 525 | 74,47 |
| F ≤ 104 | 180 | 25,53 | ||
| F >104 | 0 | 0% | ||
| Capsule | 104 | Absence | 130 | 92,86 |
| F ≤ 104 | 10 | 7,14 | ||
| F >104 | 0 | 0 |
The search for E. coli revealed a total absence of contamination of all samples in capsule form (100%) by this germ. On the other hand, contamination was detected in 9.46% of liquid medicines and 8.51% of powder medicines, with values between 1.2.10¹ UFC/mL or UFC/g and 9.2.10¹ UFC/mL or UFC/g. These values remain below the acceptability threshold of 102 UFC/mL or UFC/g set by the WHO (Table 6).
Table 6 : Level of contamination of herbal medicines by E. coli
| Products | Acceptance
criterion (UFC/mL orUFC/g) |
Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number
of samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | 102 | Absence | 670 | 90,54% |
| F ≤ 102 | 70 | 9,46% | ||
| F >102 | 0 | 0% | ||
| Powder | 102 | Absence | 645 | 91,49% |
| F ≤ 102 | 60 | 8,51% | ||
| F >102 | 0 | 0% | ||
| Capsule | 102 | Absence | 140 | 100% |
| F ≤ 102 | 0 | 0% | ||
| F >102 | 0 | 0% |
Regarding P. aeruginosa, this germ was detected in 4.05% of liquid products and 6.4% of powdered products, with microbial loads ranging from 1.9.10² UFC/mL or UFC/g to 3.9.10³ UFC/mL or UFC/g. In contrast, this bacterium was absent in all capsule medicines. This reflects relatively low contamination levels. However, these contamination levels do not comply with the microbiological criteria defined by the WHO (Table 7).
Table 7: Level of contamination of herbal medicines by P. aeruginosa
| Products | Acceptance
criterion (UFC/mL orUFC/g) |
Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number
of samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | Absence | Absence | 710 | 95,95% |
| Presence | 30 | 4,05% | ||
| Powder | Absence | Absence | 660 | 93,6% |
| Presence | 45 | 6,40% | ||
| Capsule | Absence | Absence | 140 | 100% |
| Presence | 0 | 0% |
Pathogenic microbes such as Salmonella and Shigella were found in 1.42% of powdered medicines. There was no contamination in all liquid and capsule medicines (Table 8).
Table 8: Level of contamination of herbal medicines by Salmonella sp and Shigella sp.
| Products | Acceptance
criterion (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Contamination
level (UFC/mL or UFC/g) |
Number
of samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | Absence | Absence | 740 | 100% |
| Presence | 0 | 0% | ||
| Powder | Absence | Absence | 695 | 98,58% |
| Presence | 15 | 1,42% | ||
| Capsule | Absence | Absence | 140 | 100% |
| Presence | 0 | 0% |
Finally, microbiological analyses revealed a total absence of contamination of the samples by S. aureus, L. monocytogenes and C. perfringens. This absence of contamination of the samples by these microbes is an excellent indicator of the compliance of herbal medicines produced by traditional medicine practitioners with microbiological safety standards.
Compliance Level of Herbal Medicines by Phytogalenic Form: Analysis of the compliance level of herbal medicines with the WHO acceptability criteria reveals a notable variation in microbiological compliance depending on the phytogalenic forms of the products analysed. This analysis shows that capsule products have a total compliance of 100%, fully meeting the microbiological safety criteria. In contrast, medicines in liquid and powder form show slightly lower compliance rates, with 94% and 85% compliance of the samples analysed, respectively (Table 9).
Table 9: Rate of satisfaction of herbal medicines with WHO acceptability criteria
| Phytogalenic Forms | Total | Number of
satisfactory samples |
Percentage
(%) |
Number of
unsatisfactory samples |
Percentage
(%) |
| Liquid | 740 | 695 | 93,918919 | 45 | 6,0810811 |
| Powder | 705 | 600 | 85,106383 | 105 | 14,893617 |
| Capsule | 140 | 140 | 100 | 0 | 0 |
| Total | 1585 | 1435 | 90,536278 | 150 | 9,4637224 |
DISCUSSION
Microbiological analysis of herbal medicinal preparations revealed varying levels of contamination depending on the phytogalenic forms examined and the microorganisms tested for Total Aerobic Mesophilic Flora (TAMF) was widely detected in all sample types (powder (88.51%), liquid (94.33%), and capsule (89.29%)) but complied with the microbiological safety standards established by the WHO. The results obtained are similar to those of Gbossa (2013), who observed a 100% compliance rate for total aerobic mesophilic flora (TAMF) in his study on the bacteriological quality of food products marketed by NOSOPAL. These results, similar to those of Tortora et al. (2017), published in the book Microbiology, indicate that moderate levels of TAMF are generally acceptable in phytopharmaceutical products. The detection of total coliforms in products (Liquid (60, 81%), Powder (49, 65%), Capsule (50%)) and thermotolerant products (Liquid (45, 27%), Powder (31, 20%), Capsule (35, 70%)), revealed worrying results in some samples. These results indicate a contamination rate of 2.03% of total coliforms for liquid forms and a rate of 10.63% for powdered products. These contamination levels of the analysed drugs do not comply with the microbiological safety criteria established by the WHO. The results obtained are in agreement with the work carried out by Coulibaly et al. (2018) on the microbiological quality of Improved Traditional Medicines (MTA) marketed in six municipalities of Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire). Analysis of these results revealed that 57.89% of the samples were contaminated with total coliforms, making them unsatisfactory and unfit for consumption. These results are also similar to those of Alassane (1988), who found a contamination of 35.71% of total coliforms in a comparable study. Regarding thermotolerant coliforms (TTCs), the results indicate contamination rates of 45.27% for liquid samples, 31.20% for powder samples, and 35.70% for capsules. The observed bacterial loads all met WHO acceptability criteria, suggesting compliance with manufacturing hygiene regulations. These results contradict those of N’Dour (2008), who observed non-compliance of thermotolerant coliforms in hot meals, with a rate of 7.85%. The absence of thermotolerant coliforms in more than 50% of the samples collected demonstrates the application of good hygiene practices in the manufacturing of herbal products. These results are well above those obtained by Gbossa (2013) concerning the bacteriological quality of NOSOPAL food products, which indicate a non-compliance rate of 12.63%. Furthermore, these results corroborate those of Gbekley et al. (2017), who observed the absence of thermotolerant coliforms in traditional remedies sold in the markets of Lomé (Togo). It emerges from the studies of all the authors cited in this section that the presence of coliforms in pharmaceutical products can signal a failure in compliance with hygiene standards during manufacturing and can potentially pose a danger to public health. Although the majority of samples met the WHO acceptability criteria, excessive microbiological loads were observed in some cases, highlighting the need to strengthen control practices during the manufacturing and storage of preparations. The results of the yeast and Mold counts show that 92.86% of capsule samples, 74.47% of powder samples, and 70.95% of liquid samples were free of fungal contamination. These figures demonstrate effective product storage and preservation management, as well as strict adherence to hygiene standards. These results exceed those reported by Dieng (2001), who observed a 51% contamination rate for similar products, and those of Coulibaly et al. (2018), who recorded 39.47% yeast and mold contamination of herbal medicines. However, a significant proportion of samples exhibited a fungal contamination load. Thus, 29.05% of liquid samples, 25.53% of powder samples and 7.14% of capsule samples had contamination levels ranging from 3.7.101 UFC/mL (or UFC/g) to 9.9.101 UFC/mL (or UFC/g), although these values remained below the acceptance threshold of 10⁴ UFC/g set by the WHO. The presence of yeasts and molds could be linked to the origin of the raw materials, the manufacturing process or the storage duration of the products, as pointed out by Bonfoh (2002). Dieng (2001) also observed a similar contamination of 51% for similar products. It is also likely that this fungal contamination comes from the raw materials themselves or from the storage environment, as indicated by Tayou (2007). The detection of E. coli (9.46% in liquid samples and 8.51% in powder samples), although meeting WHO thresholds, remains a concern. As a pathogen, E. coli is often associated with infectious risks, particularly in products intended for vulnerable populations. These results corroborate those of Kouamé et al. (2018), who studied the microbial contamination of the stem bark of Mitragyna ledermannii, a medicinal plant sold in the district of Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire). Their study revealed an E. coli contamination rate of 1.25% in Abobo and 25% in Adjamé, while no contamination was detected in Yopougon. These results are also in line with those of Abou-Donia (2008) and Khanzadi (2012), who reported cases of E. coli contamination in several plant species traded in markets, such as Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd, Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don, Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and Solanum nigrum L., among others. The presence of E. coli in these samples indicates fecal contamination, generally caused by inadequate hygiene conditions. Microbiological analysis revealed the presence of P. aeruginosa in 4.05% of liquid samples and 6.4% of powder samples. Although these levels remain low, this opportunistic bacterium, often implicated in nosocomial infections, represents a significant risk, particularly for susceptible populations. These results are comparatively better than those of Kouamé et al. (2018), who reported contamination by P. aeruginosa in 61% of bark samples from Mitragyna ledermannii, a medicinal plant marketed in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. These results also corroborate the work of Omogbai et al. (2013), who observed the presence of P. aeruginosa in various samples of medicinal plants marketed in Benin. These results highlight the need for rigorous microbiological monitoring and increased surveillance throughout the production process, particularly for products intended for vulnerable groups. This bacterium, among other microorganisms, is responsible for the enzymatic degradation of pectic polymers present in plant cells, a phenomenon that leads to product spoilage (Desbordes, 2003). However, contrary to these observations, Nandna et al. (2011) did not detect any contamination by P. aeruginosa in samples of medicinal plants marketed in several markets in India. This difference suggests that the presence or absence of this bacterium could be influenced by environmental factors, including storage conditions and origin of raw materials. Indeed, P. aeruginosa has a particular affinity for aquatic environments (Leclerc and Moreau, 2002), which underlines the importance of maintaining rigorous storage practices and optimal sanitary conditions to prevent any contamination. The sporadic detection of pathogens such as Salmonella and Shigella, although rare, highlights the need for constant vigilance to avoid any health risks. Although they were found in a small percentage in powdered samples, these pathogens are widely recognized for their pathogenic potential, justifying additional investigations to ensure their absence in all produced batches. The presence of these bacteria appears to result from fecal contamination, given that they reside primarily in the intestinal tract of animals (particularly birds, reptiles, and mammals), as well as in the faeces of infected humans (Shawn et al., 2006). These bacteria are transmitted primarily via the fecal-oral route and are common in areas with poor hygiene conditions (Cheng and Jonathan, 1996). These results contrast with those of Coulibaly et al. (2018) and Kouamé et al. (2018), who observed no presence of Salmonella and Shigella in their respective studies. The complete absence of contamination by pathogenic bacteria such as S. aureus, L. monocytogenes and C. perfringens is a positive indicator, demonstrating strict compliance with microbiological safety criteria. This is confirmed by the WHO (2007) and OOAS (2013), which emphasize that these pathogens are rarely present in plant protection products when they are manufactured correctly, in accordance with good manufacturing and hygiene practices (GMPH). The results highlighted significant differences in microbiological compliance between the different phytogalenic forms. Capsules showed 100% compliance, while liquid and powder forms showed slightly lower rates. This variation could be explained by the manufacturing and storage characteristics of each form (WHO, 2007). Liquid forms are more susceptible to contamination by molds or yeasts due to their water content, while powders can absorb moisture, promoting microbial growth (WHO, 2007) and (OOAS, 2013). These results suggest the need to strengthen quality control measures for liquid and powder forms, particularly with regard to hygiene and storage conditions.
CONCLUSION AND APPLICATION OF RESULTS
The majority of herbal medicinal preparations analysed in this study met the microbiological safety standards established by the WHO. However, some samples, particularly those in liquid and powder form, revealed levels of microbiological contamination that require special attention. These results highlight the need for rigorous quality management throughout the production, storage, and distribution of herbal medicinal products. It is essential to establish a continuous monitoring system to identify and control contamination risks from the earliest stages of manufacturing. Preventive measures, such as improving hygiene conditions and using more rigorous manufacturing techniques, should be reinforced among traditional medicine practitioners. Furthermore, regular training on good manufacturing practices and strict quality control protocols are essential to ensure consumer safety. These efforts will not only strengthen consumer confidence but also ensure that the benefits of traditional medicines are delivered safely and effectively.
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